Mount Melbourne: The Fire Beneath the Ice

In the frozen wilderness of Northern Victoria Land, Antarctica, stands a contradiction. Mount Melbourne is a massive, ice-covered stratovolcano that looks, from a distance, like just another peak in the Transantarctic Mountains. But Melbourne is alive. While the rest of the continent is locked in a deep freeze, this mountain harbors a secret geological heart that pumps heat to the surface, creating one of the most surreal and scientifically significant environments on Earth.

Rising to 2,732 meters (8,963 feet) above the Ross Sea, Mount Melbourne is not famous for towering plumes of ash or flowing rivers of lava—at least, not in recent memory. Instead, it is famous for its fumarolic ice towers and its cryptogamic gardens. Here, in the coldest place on the planet, volcanic steam has carved out labyrinthine caves beneath the ice, and geothermal warmth supports lush patches of green moss that have survived in isolation for centuries. It is a biological time capsule and a geological wonder, a place where fire meets ice in a delicate, life-sustaining dance.

Geological Setting: The Terror Rift

Mount Melbourne is a key player in the McMurdo Volcanic Group.

The Rift: It sits on the Terror Rift, a major tectonic feature within the West Antarctic Rift System. This is where the earth’s crust is slowly pulling apart, allowing magma to rise toward the surface.
The Neighbors: It is part of a volcanic province that includes the active Mount Erebus to the south. However, unlike the continuous lava lake of Erebus, Melbourne is characterized by a “quiescent” phase, hiding its power beneath a thick glacial cap.
Structure: The mountain is a classic stratovolcano, built up over layers of basaltic and trachytic flows. It is almost entirely encrusted in ice, which masks its true shape. Only the summit crater and a few satellite vents break through the white shroud.

Cryptogam Ridge: A Greenhouse in the Deep Freeze

The most astonishing feature of Mount Melbourne is Cryptogam Ridge.

The Anomaly: Antarctica is a polar desert. Plants are phenomenally rare, usually restricted to hardy lichens on coastal rocks. Yet, high on the slopes of Melbourne, there are patches of ground that are steaming hot.
Geothermal Heating: The soil temperature here can reach 40°C to 50°C (104°F to 122°F), heated by the magma chamber below. This prevents snow from accumulating and creates a microclimate of permanent warmth.
The Green Island: This warmth supports a thriving community of cryptogams—plants that reproduce via spores rather than seeds. Specifically, lush mats of the moss Campylopus pyriformis and the liverwort Cephaloziella varians grow here.
Unique Genetics: Genetic analysis shows that these mosses are distinct from similar species found elsewhere. They have evolved in isolation, trapped on this warm volcanic island in a sea of ice. Some scientists believe they survived the last Ice Age right here, huddled around the volcanic vents while the rest of the continent was obliterated by glaciers.

Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA 118)

Because of this fragility, the summit area is designated as ASPA 118.

Strict Protection: Entry is strictly controlled. Scientists must wear sterile protective clothing (often called “bunny suits”) to ensure they do not introduce foreign spores or bacteria.
The Threat: If a non-native species (like a common European moss) were introduced, it could thrive in the warm soil and wipe out the unique ancient mosses of Melbourne. The area is a “biological zero” zone.

The Ice Caves: A Subterranean Labyrinth

If the moss is the wonder above ground, the ice caves are the wonder below.

Formation: Geothermal steam rises from fumaroles (vents) in the bedrock. When this hot steam hits the underside of the glacier cap, it melts the ice, creating caverns.
Towers and Chimneys: As the steam escapes through cracks to the surface, it hits the freezing Antarctic air (often -30°C). It instantly sublimates and freezes, building up delicate, hollow towers of ice around the vents. Some of these fumarolic ice towers can reach several meters in height, standing like ghostly sentinels on the crater rim.
Inside the Caves: Explorers (primarily scientists) who have lowered themselves into these caves describe a magical world. The walls are scalloped by prolonged melting, crystal formations hang from the ceilings, and the air is thick with the smell of sulfur—a stark contrast to the sterile, odorless air of the Antarctic surface.
A Mars Analogue: These caves are of intense interest to astrobiologists. They simulate conditions that might exist on Mars or icy moons like Enceladus and Europa. If life can exist in the warm, dark, wet interface between volcanic rock and polar ice on Earth, could it exist elsewhere in the solar system?

The Erebus Connection: A Tale of Two Volcanoes

Mount Melbourne is often overshadowed by its more famous southern neighbor, Mount Erebus. However, understanding one helps understand the other.

Tectonic Twins: Both volcanoes sit on the same Terror Rift system, acting as pressure valves for the Earth’s crust in Antarctica.
Contrasting Personalities: Erebus is an open-vent volcano with a persistent lava lake (a rarity on Earth). It constantly “breathes,” emitting a plume of gas. Melbourne, by contrast, is a “plugged” system. It does not have an open lava lake. Its heat is trapped, which is why it forms such extensive ice caves and fumarolic towers rather than a plume.
Magma Types: Erebus erupts phonolite lava, while Melbourne’s history shows a mix of trachyte and basalt. This difference in chemistry affects their eruption styles. Erebus is strombolian (mildly explosive), while Melbourne has the potential for more dangerous, Plinian-style explosive eruptions if the pressure builds too high.

Glaciology and the Campbell Glacier

The interaction between the volcano’s heat and the surrounding ice is complex.

The Campbell Glacier: To the north of the volcano flows the massive Campbell Glacier. The volcano acts as a topographic barrier, forcing the ice to flow around it. This diversion creates huge crevasses and icefalls that make approaching the mountain from the north nearly impossible.
Subglacial Eruptions: Evidence suggests that Melbourne has erupted beneath the ice in the past. A “tuya” or subglacial volcano forms when lava meets ice, often creating flat-topped mountains or piles of “pillow lava.” The rapid melting caused by such an eruption today could destabilize the Campbell Glacier, increasing ice discharge into the ocean.
Icequakes: The heat flow from the mountain lubricates the base of the glaciers. This can cause the ice to slide faster, creating unique seismic signatures known as icequakes. Monitoring these helps scientists distinguish between tectonic movement and volcanic unrest. Analyzing these icequakes provides a “CT scan” of the subglacial terrain.

Human History and Exploration

Discovery: The mountain was discovered in 1841 by James Clark Ross, the legendary polar explorer who also discovered Mount Erebus. He named it after Lord Melbourne, the British Prime Minister at the time.
First Ascent: It wasn’t until 1967 that a New Zealand party led by R.M. Ford reached the summit. They were the ones who first reported the “warm ground” and the strange sight of green moss growing in the lifeless white void.
Nearby Stations: The region is a hub for research.
- Mario Zucchelli Station (Italy): Located at Terra Nova Bay, just south of the volcano. It operates during the summer.
- Jang Bogo Station (South Korea): A modern, year-round station also at Terra Nova Bay.
- Gondwana Station (Germany): A summer logistical hub.
- These stations use Mount Melbourne as a primary research site, monitoring its seismicity and gas emissions.

Volcanic Hazards in Antarctica

One might think a volcano in Antarctica is harmless because nobody lives there. That is incorrect.

Ash and Aviation: The primary risk is to aviation. Antarctica relies heavily on air travel for logistics (C-130 Hercules flights, helicopters). An ash cloud from Melbourne would ground all flights in the Ross Sea sector, potentially stranding hundreds of scientists and cutting off resupply lines.
Tephra Layers: Ice cores drilled nearby reveal layers of tephra (volcanic ash) from Melbourne, proving it has had explosive eruptions in the relatively recent past (likely around 1892).
Melting: A major eruption could flash-melt millions of tons of ice, creating catastrophic jökulhlaups (glacial outburst floods) that could sweep through the research stations located on the coast below.

The Future: Monitoring a Sleeping Giant

Is Mount Melbourne waking up?

Recent Signs: In recent decades, satellite monitoring (InSAR) and ground sensors have detected periods of ground deformation—the mountain breathing.
Gas Emissions: There has been an observed increase in the intensity of fumarolic activity. This could be a normal cycle, or it could indicate fresh magma moving into the shallow reservoir.
The Challenge: Monitoring a volcano in Antarctica is a logistical nightmare. Solar panels fail in the 6-month winter night. Batteries freeze. Wind storms destroy instruments. Yet, the international community (led by the Italians and Koreans) maintains a vigil, listening to the heartbeat of the fire beneath the ice.

Conclusion

Mount Melbourne destroys the stereotype of Antarctica as a static, dead continent. It is a dynamic, evolving landscape where the planet’s inner fire creates oases of life in a frozen desert. From the delicate mosses of Cryptogam Ridge to the alien beauty of its ice caves, it serves as a laboratory for the extremes of existence. It is a reminder that even in the most inhospitable corners of the globe, nature finds a way to sustain warmth and life.